Overview of Devanāgarī#
Script Features#
Devanāgarī is an abugida . ie sounds are represented in syllabic units formed by modifying the consonant character with a mark representing the associated vowel.
eg: क् (k) + ओ (o) = को (ko)
By default, each consonant inherently carries the vowel a (अ) unless modified. i.e.
- क is the sound ka (not “k”)
- To remove the vowel: क् = k (using virāma/halant)
Writing runs left to right. And words are formed by connecting these syllabic (consonant + vowel) units with a top horizontal line called the śirorekhā.
eg:
योग (yoga) = यो (y+o)+ ग (g+a)
आसन (āsana) = आ (ā)+ स (s+a) + न (n+a)
Vowels (स्वर)#
Independent Vowels#
i.e. how vowels are represented when not accompanying a consonant
| short vowels | IAST | long vowels | IAST | Length Type |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| अ | a | आ | ā | a / ā |
| इ | i | ई | ī | i / ī |
| उ | u | ऊ | ū | u / ū |
| ऋ | ṛ | ॠ | ṝ | ṛ / ṝ |
| ऌ | ḷ | ॡ | ḹ | ḷ / ḹ |
| — | — | ए | e | e (dīrgha) |
| — | — | ऐ | ai | ai (dīrgha) |
| — | — | ओ | o | o (dīrgha) |
| — | — | औ | au | au (dīrgha) |
Vowel Length Categories#
Hṛsva (Short)#
Short duration vowels:
- a, i, u, ṛ, ḷ
Dīrgha (Long)#
Long duration vowels (approximately double length):
- ā, ī, ū, ṝ, ḹ, e, ai, o, au
Pluta (Prolated)#
Pluta indicates extra-long (three morae) pronunciation. There are no special characters representing pluta sound. Instead, a superscript ३ or ऽ is added following the vowel sound. pluta vowels are not so common, and occur primarily during Sandhi, ie the process of combining two contiguous words into one.
- ओ३ or ओऽ (o3)
Vowel Marks (Mātrā)#
As we’ve seen above, when vowels follow consonants, they appear as marks modifying the consonant character.
Example with क (ka):
| अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ऋ | ऌ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vowel | अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ऋ | ऌ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ |
| Mātrā | — | ा | ि | ी | ु | ू | ृ | ॢ | े | ै | ो | ौ |
| Example | क | का | कि | की | कु | कू | कृ | कॢ | के | कै | को | कौ |
| IAST | ka | kā | ki | kī | ku | kū | kṛ | kḷ | ke | kai | ko | kau |
Note: The mark ि (for i) appears before the consonant visually but is pronounced after it.
Consonants (व्यंजन)#
In Devanāgarī alphobet, the consonants are usually grouped by place of articulation.
Varga Consonants (Stops)#
| Articulation | Voiceless Unaspirated | Voiceless Aspirated | Voiced Unaspirated | Voiced Aspirated | Nasal (Voiced) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Velar | क (ka) | ख (kha) | ग (ga) | घ (gha) | ङ (ṅa) |
| Palatal | च (ca) | छ (cha) | ज (ja) | झ (jha) | ञ (ña) |
| Retroflex | ट (ṭa) | ठ (ṭha) | ड (ḍa) | ढ (ḍha) | ण (ṇa) |
| Dental | त (ta) | थ (tha) | द (da) | ध (dha) | न (na) |
| Labial | प (pa) | फ (pha) | ब (ba) | भ (bha) | म (ma) |
Semivowels (अन्तःस्थ)#
| Feature | Palatal | Retroflex | Dental | Labial |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiced | य (ya) | र (ra) | ल (la) | व (va) |
Sibilants and Aspirate (ऊष्मन्)#
| Feature | Palatal | Retroflex | Dental | Glottal |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless Fricative | श (śa) | ष (ṣa) | स (sa) | — |
| Voiced / Breath Sound | — | — | — | ह (ha) |
Additional Signs#
| Symbol | Name | Function |
|---|---|---|
| ं | Anusvāra | Nasal (ṃ) |
| ः | Visarga | Breath release (ḥ) |
| ँ | Candrabindu | Nasalized vowel |
| ् | Virāma (Halant) | Removes inherent vowel |
Example:
- क = ka
- क् = k
- कं = kaṃ
- क: = kaḥ
Compound Consonants (संयुक्ताक्षर)#
When two or more consonants occur together without an intervening vowel, they form a conjunct.
6.1 With Virāma#
क् + त = क्त (kta)
Ligatures#
Some combinations fuse to form unique symbols:
| Conjunct | Components | IAST |
|---|---|---|
| क्ष | क् + ष | kṣa |
| त्र | त् + र | tra |
| ज्ञ | ज् + ञ | jña |
| श्र | श् + र | śra |
Syllable Formation#
A Devanāgarī syllable typically follows:
Examples:
- क = ka
- का = kā
- क्र = kra
- स्त = sta
- सं स्कृ त = saṃ skṛ ta <- components of the word sanskrit
Basic Pattern#
Consonant + inherent vowel:
- क = ka
Consonant + vowel mark:
- कु = ku
- की = kī
Consonant cluster:
- क् + र = क्र (kra)